References & Citations

Every clinical value on this site traces to an authoritative primary source. The core references are listed below, and each page repeats the references relevant to its content. See how we use them in our methodology.

How We Use Sources

We prioritise primary and authoritative sources in a clear order. The original publication for an equation comes first, then guideline bodies such as KDIGO and the National Kidney Foundation, then FDA drug labels for dosing thresholds. Patient-facing references such as MedlinePlus come last, for plain-language explanation. For critical values (equation coefficients, normal ranges, CKD cutoffs, and renal drug-dosing thresholds), we look for two or three corroborating sources rather than one. When a source contradicts a value we had recorded, we defer to the authoritative source, correct the value, and cite it. Every clinical claim on a page has a real reference URL in that page's reference list rather than a generic mention.

Refresh Cadence

Guidelines and drug labels change, so a citation is only as current as its last check. We re-review clinical pages and their sources on a three-to-six-month cycle, updating references when a guideline is revised or a label is changed. Each page records its last-reviewed date so you can see how recently its sources were confirmed.

Core References

1. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976;16(1):31-41.
2. National Kidney Foundation. Cockcroft-Gault Equation for Estimating Creatinine Clearance.
3. Inker LA, Eneanya ND, Coresh J, et al. New creatinine- and cystatin C-based equations to estimate GFR without race. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(19):1737-1749.
4. Levey AS, Coresh J, Greene T, et al. Expressing the MDRD study equation for estimating GFR with IDMS-traceable creatinine values. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145(4):247-254.
5. Schwartz GJ, Muñoz A, Schneider MF, et al. New equations to estimate GFR in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20(3):629-637.
6. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). KDIGO 2024 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of CKD.
7. National Kidney Foundation. How to Classify CKD (GFR and albuminuria categories).
8. Shahbaz H, Gupta M. Creatinine Clearance. StatPearls. NCBI Bookshelf, NIH.
9. MedlinePlus (NIH). Creatinine Test.
10. MedlinePlus (NIH). Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Test.
11. MedlinePlus (NIH). BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) Test.
12. Rybak MJ, Le J, Lodise TP, et al. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin: ASHP/IDSA/PIDS/SIDP consensus guideline. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 2020;77(11):835-864.
13. Devine BJ. Gentamicin therapy. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1974;8:650-655 (ideal body weight formula).
14. Calvert AH, Newell DR, Gumbrell LA, et al. Carboplatin dosage: prospective evaluation of a simple formula based on renal function. J Clin Oncol. 1989;7(11):1748-1756.
15. National Kidney Foundation. Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR).
16. National Kidney Foundation. Urine Albumin-Creatinine Ratio (uACR).
17. National Kidney Foundation. Dialysis.
18. Cleveland Clinic. Urine Albumin-Creatinine Ratio (uACR).
19. MedlinePlus (NIH). Microalbumin Creatinine Ratio.
20. MedlinePlus (NIH). Protein in Urine.
21. MedlinePlus (NIH). Chronic Kidney Disease.
22. MedlinePlus (NIH). Dialysis.
23. MedlinePlus (NIH). Kidney Tests.
24. MedlinePlus (NIH). Creatine (supplement).
25. MedlinePlus (NIH). Creatine Kinase (CK) Test.
26. U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Drugs@FDA: FDA-Approved Drugs.
27. DailyMed (U.S. National Library of Medicine). FDA drug labeling.
28. Winter MA, Guhr KN, Berg GM. Impact of various body weights and serum creatinine concentrations on the bias and accuracy of the Cockcroft-Gault equation. Pharmacotherapy. 2012;32(7):604-612.
29. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Pharmacokinetics in Patients with Impaired Renal Function: Study Design, Data Analysis, and Impact on Dosing. Guidance for Industry (final), March 2024.
30. Butrovich MA, Reaves AC, Heyward J, et al. Inclusion of participants with CKD and other kidney-related considerations during clinical drug development: landscape analysis of anticancer agents approved from 2015 to 2019. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2023;18(4):455-464.
31. SWOG Cancer Research Network. Policy 38: Dosing Principles (Section II, Calculating Creatinine Clearance).
32. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. 21 CFR 312.62: Investigator recordkeeping and record retention.